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If you are new to computers or just want to update your computer skills, this free Computer Basics tutorial will show you how. Understand the basics of using a computer. In this Computer Basics lesson, you will learn more about how a computer works and how to set up a computer and use it. ROM's purpose is to store. BIOS) that controls the start- up, or. Windows). programs and data in current use are kept, ready to be accessed by. It is the best known form of computer memory. The more RAM you have, the quicker and more powerful your. You have read about the applications and types of computers. Computers can also be categorized general purpose computers and special purpose computers, depending on their area of application. Special purpose computers are designed to perform specific. Learning computer basics is a dreaded nightmare for any new computer user. There are so many things to learn about computers and the fact that they change with new updates every day, the entire learning process seems a little bit crazy. I have been working on. The two types differ in the technology they use. DRAM, the more common type, needs to be refreshed. SRAM does not need to be refreshed. DRAM. It temporarily stores recently. Whenever the processor needs to. If it finds the data. Memory caching. allows data to be accessed more quickly. Storage Devices. The most common forms of storage devices in a. Hard disk drive- Floppy disk - CD- ROM - CD- R and CD- RW- DVD- ROM - USB flash drives. Hard disk and hard drive (HD) A hard disk is a magnetic disk on which. The term. “hard” is used to distinguish it from a soft, or floppy, disk. Hard. disks hold more data and are much faster than floppy disks and. A hard drive is a mechanism that reads and writes. The capacity of hard drives in newer PCs ranges. GB to 6. 0GB in size since all software, from operating systems. Unlike most hard disks, floppy. This type of floppy was generally capable. KB and 1. 2. MB of data. After 1. 98. 7 the size. The most common sizes for PCs are 7. KB. (double- density) and 1. MB (high- density). Optical disk and optical drive Optical disks can store information at. Thus, they are ideal for. Besides, they are not affected by magnetic. This means that they are secure and stable; for example. However, optical drives are slower than hard. CD- ROMs are considered the most economical. For example, a CD- ROM. MB) can replace 3. Yet, you can only read information on a CD- ROM but cannot. A CD- ROM drive is used to play CD- ROMs and it can. CDs. CD- ROM drives are available in a variety of. This indicates the speed at which data can be pulled. CD- ROM drive. Higher- speed CD- ROM drives help to. They can also be used to. CD- RW. (short for “Compact Disk Rewritable”) drives can erase and reuse. CD- RW disks. In fact, to create CD- ROMs and audio CDs. CD burner, but also a CD- R/CD- RW software. It can hold up to 1. GB of data. about 2. CD- ROM. For this reason, a DVD- ROM can. It can also play music CDs and CD- ROMs. DVDs. are read- only devices. To avoid this limitation, companies also. DVD- R/DVD- RW disks and DVD- burners. USB flash drive A USB flash drive is a small, portable. USB port and. functions as a portable hard drive with up to 2. GB of storage. capacity. USB flash drives are easy- to- use because they are small. USB drive. In addition, they are very durable because they do not. USB flash drives also are called. USB drives. Activity 3. Monitor There are two types of monitors available. PCs: the traditional CRT (cathode ray tube) and the newer. The CRT is used for both televisions and. It produces a good quality image at a number of different. LCD monitors, also known as flat. They are lighter and smaller (only. CRTs with reduced electromagnetic emissions and. Video Card The card here is a jargon for an. Video cards are also known as graphics. D and 3. D images on. D graphics are the regular pictures and images that. D graphics are mostly used in games and. Most. modern video cards are accompanied by the software that enables you. The lower the numbers, the lower the. Remember that getting the video card setting wrong is a. Question 2. Do you know where to find the screen resolution and how to set it? Sound Card A sound card is an electronic circuit. Nowadays, many sound cards are also. Windows- compatible. Many multimedia applications require the. Windows- compatible sound card to run. Ports A port is an interface on a computer to. Personal computers have various. Internally, there are several ports for connecting. Externally, personal computers. The USB connectors let you attach everything from. The operating system supports USB as well, so the. Activity 4. Please do Exercise. Functions of Hardware (Matching)Activity 5: Please do. Exercise 2- 5 Computer Acronyms – What do they stand for? Activity 6: Please click the following link and read a. IBM Think. Centre 8. U. Then answer the questions. The pop- up window. Now please go to Part II: Software.
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At the heart of that debate is a sharp disagreement over the effects of Obama. His new book, Money Well Spent?: The Truth Behind the Trillion- Dollar Stimulus, the Biggest Economic Recovery Plan in History, looks at the stimulus overall as well as its effects on specific communities like Elkhart, Ind., the country. Here are excerpts: The Fiscal Times (TFT): The stimulus is the biggest economic recovery plan ever, bigger even than Depression- era programs like the Works Progress Administration, you say. But you also describe the WPA as going from zero to 6. What do you mean by that? So the stimulus — the so-called American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009 or ARRA — is starting to wind down. Michael Grabell (MG): In raw dollars, inflation adjusted, the stimulus comes out as the biggest . The point of the zero to 6. So when the WPA came in spending $1. All of a sudden there. Report Highlights Successful Stimulus. Nonprofits were on the front lines of implementing programs with funding from President Obama’s stimulus package. Now that the stimulus is coming to a close, what. INTX - Annual Conference. Overview; Cable's Story. A lot of Democrats say we should have just had more. When I talked to regular people who were out of work or hoping to find jobs, a lot of folks were disappointed, hoping that it . But I also spoke to people who benefitted. Your thoughts? MG: In my discussions with Dr. Romer and others on the team, there was an economic model that was done on the $1. There was a political caution and almost internal censorship to not look politically na. Romer told me she was the new kid in Washington. So when they got up to $8. And when they went into this meeting on December 8, 2. And no one really mentioned . Given the political environment, was this package the best they could do? MG: In the environment of February 2. Susan Collins in Maine came into the first week of February thinking $6. When she and others had their one- on- one meetings with the president, he convinced her and others to go up to $8. He made a pretty strong case. However, the president could have changed this if had he come in and laid out all of these things for the public and said, .
The money was spread so far and wide that in a lot of different programs it was absorbed into existing budgets. So those were mostly saved. In terms of projects, you have these short- term projects that took too long to get off the ground and didn. On long- term investments, things like clean energy, high- speed rail and electric cars are things that the administration knew or should have known are going to take decades to achieve. But in a stimulus package, they had to meet these very quick deadlines. So there were some bad investments made and bad decisions made about where to start a high- speed rail project, for example. Some decisions were rushed and may have jeopardized the long- term goal of the investments. TFT: Do you think the administration could have laid out a short- term plan and a long- term plan and gotten something through? MG: A former Obama adviser said to me, . Then his advisers could have been working on a more sustainable investment package of infrastructure projects. Unemployment would still have been increasing; there likely would have been an appetite for this in 2. They might not have burned bridges on the politics side. TFT: Were the flaws in the stimulus more the result of misjudgments from a new team, or just the nature of politics? MG: I think it is a combination of misjudgments but also the way we do things traditionally in Congress. When the president came in and said, . Or Washington as usual won. There were pet issues and pet projects and different formulas and horse- trading to try and get special issues and projects into the bill. Rather than having an easily definable thing for the public to see, this was more than a hundred different programs, wide and varying. There are some very big projects we. The Fourth Bore, the Caldecott Tunnel in Oakland in its suburbs, the Cleveland Interbelt Bridge got $7. Cleveland, and South Dakota is building a tribal school for the Sioux tribe. In New York, Moynihan Station, the Second Avenue subway, Staten Island. TFT: If Nixon is popularly credited with saying we. Given the way the stimulus was spent, can we actually draw any conclusions about Keynesian spending? MG: That. It got $1. The unemployment rate went down from 1. Aiken saw its hotel tax not only get back to where it was before the recession, but go 1. There were multiplier effects for real. In most other places, the money was spread so far and wide you really couldn. That said, in order to really have effective Keynesian stimulus, you need substantial amounts of money that may be politically untenable in any generation. The question is, will the lessons of the stimulus change the way we talk about what Keynesian stimulus can and can. It needs to be paired with other things like long- term policies to bring about strong recoveries and strong economic foundations. 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ANESTH ANALG 1997;84:1140-1 to the outpatient clinic (10 mo later), and analgesia was adequate. Discussion In these patients, persistent CSF leakage unresponsive to an epidural blood patch responded favorably to epidural injection of fibrin. Fibrin glue can be applied in much the same way as a blood patch to seal a known CSF leak site. Fibrin glue is often used where a blood patch repeatedly fails. A surgical repair may be performed where a patient fails to respond to a blood patch or a blood patch. Further procedures to resolve the issue include an injection of fibrin glue into the specific location of the rupture and. There are also some similar syndromes where the compliance of the intracranial compartment is too high, causing similar symptoms when the brain sags downward on standing, and floats back upward supine. It is estimated that CSF leaks have an incidence of about 5/1. Symptoms of CSF leak commonly include headaches, which are more severe in the upright position. Trendelenburg) positioning. These. symptoms are nonspecific as they are commonly encountered in migraine. Cognitive decline has also been reported (Hong. Pleasure et al, 1. The diagnostic criteria of the International Headache Society include: Orthostatic headache (headache worse upright than supine)At least one associated symptom among. Evidence of low CSF pressure or leakage by at least one of the following. MRI showing indirect signs of low CSF pressurelumbar puncture recording CSF pressure < 6. H2) in the lateral decubitus. CT myelography. Radionuclide cisternography showing the site of leakage. Of these symptoms, neck pain or stiffness, nausea and vomiting are the most common symptoms. If we consider which symptoms are the most specific, this is obviously #3. The associated symptoms are common human complaints - - for example, severe tinnitus is endorsed by 6% of the population, and migraine headaches which commonly include photophobia and nausea affect roughly 1. Regarding #3, It has been our observation that brain MRI showing indirect signs of CSF pressure (i. Orthostatic HA without CSF Leak. Distensible dura. Trephine syndrome - - large skull defect. Low CSF pressure of uncertain etiology (spontaneous intracranial hypotension)Cysts of CSF pathways (e. Fibrin Glue Injection Stops Persistent Cerebrospinal Fluid Leak During Long-Term Intrathecal. Three patients in whom persistent CSF leak- age was succesfully treated with an. Colloid cyst)Leep and Mokri (2. CSF. leak. They speculate that in these patients, there might be either an. One would think that there would be postural hearing fluctuations in the trephine syndrome, but to our knowledge, this has not been tested. Postural headaches. CSF pathways such as in colloid cysts (see image below) or a cyst of the septum pellucidum. Low CSF pressure without a leak being found, called . These may be dectected from dural enhancement or lumbar puncture. As this is an otoneurology site, we will go into the hearing related symptoms of CSF leaks. While CSF leak is generally accompanied by an orthostatic. Oncel et al, 1. 99. Orthostatic tinnitus. Arai, Takada et al. The hearing loss of CSF leak likely. CSF pressure, which lowers perilymphatic (inner ear). Meniere's. disease. Locations of CSF leaks. CSF leaks are typically at the level of the spine, particularly the thoracic. Sometimes. they are unintentional consequences of an overdraining CSF shunt (e. According to Heaton et al (2. CSF leak following sinus surgery often have an anatomic variation such as a steep skull base angle and a lower cribiform plate height relative to the ethmoid roof. CSF leaks can also. CSF leaks into the middle. Potential sites. of CSF leak include the oval and round windows, the stapes footplate. Practically however, the middle. We also do not know of any study in which infection. To be sure that there is no CSF leak. CT scan in every. At this writing, perhaps. CSF leaks, this is not generally done. The video above (courtesy of Dr. Wiet, who was referred this patient with the tube in place), shows. CSF pulsating in a ventilation tube. CSF leaks may follow mastoid surgery. The roof of the mastoid sinus is adjacent to the underside of the temporal lobe. As long as the dura remains intact, no leak will occur. See this link for a picture of this situation. Sinus. surgery and pituitary surgery are the main sources of leaks through the. In this case. the leak is at the site of the puncture. Hearing impairment is commonly associated with spinal anesthesia (2. Cosar et al, 2. 00. Symptoms from this kind of leak can be delayed. Lybecker and Anderson, 1. It seems likely that these. Sometimes the leaks are discovered when brain imaging documents a new fluid accumulation in the brain (see image below). Acquired leaks can be caused by head or spine. Infections: Only 2. Manjunath, 2. 00. Congenital leaks are most often associated with the development of anomalous transcranial pathways. Spontaneous leaks Spontaneous leaks from the nose are uncommon (1/2. Mokri. 1. 99. 7; 3. Seth, 2. 01. 0). According to Seth et al (2. Supporting this idea, CSF leaks have been reported due. Miyazawa et al, 2. Vishteh, Schievink et al. When we originally advanced this idea in 2. Recently. however, using radioisotope cisternography, Ishikawa et al. CSF leaks primarily in the lumbar. Other things that can look like a leak Other conditions to exclude when considering the diagnosis of CSF leak are. BPPV, and orthostatic. When considering leaks from the nose, of course other fluids than. CSF can leak out of the nose. CSF leaks can also result from high- pressure hydrocephalus. In this situation. Tosun et al, 2. 00. Diagnostic testing. Tests not requiring lumbar puncture: MRI of head (engorgement, Chiari, subdural)Spine MRIHigh- resolution CT scan of temporal bone (if there are ear symptoms). Abdominal binder. Before starting the discussion, lets first say that none of these. The best, at the present time, involves. MRI to find side effects of low CSF pressure - - venous. Head MRI findings include diffuse meningeal gadolinium enhancement due to engorgement. Mokri et al, 1. 99. Chiari malformation (Paynor, 1. Spine MRI may show extra- arachnoid fluid, meningeal diverticuli. Miyazawa et al, 2. Medina et al, 2. 01. Starling et al, 2. Bonetto et al, 2. The engorgement of the. MRI. While this finding suggests that a CSF leak is possible, it does not identify the site of leak. It does not replace myelography. The image above shows an epidural collection outside the cerebellum. Bonetto et al (2. T1 from T2 weighted spinal MRI was highly. All of Bonetto's patients also had meningeal. In other words, these. Response to abdominal binders is both used as a treatment as well as a diagnostic maneuver. It seems likely that compression garments, such as the . The C1- C2 sign is a focal area of fluid between the spinous. C1 and C2 (image to left above). Spinal fluid hygromas (see image above to right), are similar fluid collections. When found in the setting of orthostatic headaches, they are a good reason to pursue the diagnosis of CSF leaks. Spontaneous leaks into the middle ear are usually. CT scans. This may reveal discrete tegmen. These can be. repaired via a middle fossa craniotomy (Leonetti et al, 2. Chen et al., 2. 00. Doppler may. show increased flow velocity. It may be difficult to find a sonographer. We have not tried to use this method in. Chicago - - and it also seems unlikely to work in any case. MRI. may show collapse of the superior opthalmic vein (Chen et al., 2. We have not had any. Leaks. of spinal fluid from the nose or external ear can be detected by. Bachman et al, 2. Wernecke et al, 2. It is too soon to say if. It is our thought. Tests requiring lumbar puncture: Checking of spinal fluid pressure. Radioisotope cisternography (early appearance of tracer in. CT or MR myelography (extra- CSF dye)Fluorescein injection into spinal fluid. Opening pressure on LPIn adults, CSF opening pressure is generally considered normal between 1. H2. 0 (Wright et al, 2. In normal children values may be even higher (2. Radioactive labels. Use of radioactive material into the spinal fluid is logical as it can be detected with extremely high sensitivity, and also there is no natural source for radioactive secretions. Radioactive label materials may include technetium or indium 1. Indium is. an agent that attaches specifically to CSF proteins. A major disadvantage of. Radioisotope cisternography characteristically shows a decrease or absence. Radiologic studies are also useful - - CT contrast cisternography after metrizamide. This may be impractical. Lue and Manolidis 2. CT also requires radiation. MRI myelography. Gadolinium MRI documenting location of CSF leak (arrow). Image from Jinkins et al, 2. A new test, injection of a small amount of gadolinium contrast into. MRI is very promising (Jinkins et. Gadolinium is not as toxic as is CT contrast dye, and also. CT contrast could be confused with bony structures, gadolinium is. Of course, MRI can scan the. In our practice in Chicago. Morton Grove Illinois (a suburb. Chicago). MRI is sometimes repeated at 1 and 2 days post injection. Older methods, not recommended at this date. Although not recommended as a diagnostic test, on. CSF. pressure is 4. However, if this is found, one still needs. The other half of patients may have normal. CSF pressure so a lumbar puncture is not 1. CSF pressure. Of course, there is some danger of causing a leak, per. In a small minority of patients with CSF leak, CSF pressure. MRI findings. Perhaps this indicates an intermittent situation. Spinal. fluid testing may show a minor pleocytosis of 5 or more cells, and a. Mokri et al, 1. 99. In the past it was thought that CSF could be distinguished from other fluids. Testing of the fluid dripping from the nose for glucose. Testing for beta- transferrin may help determine. CSF or something else. We not difficult to implement, have not had much success with this method. A. surer method is to inject radioactive label or a fluorescent dye into. Nasal. pledgets can be left in the nose for extended periods, enabling. CSF is used (according to Hilinski et al, 2. Smaller. amounts are used in children. It is useful to. use control pledgets under the upper lip for comparison. No complications were reported by. Montgomery in more than 2. Seth et al. (2. 01. However some authors have. Audiometry. (hearing testing) is sometimes affected by CSF- leak. Walsted, Salomon et al. Walsted, Salomon et al. Walsted. Salomon et al. Walsted, Nielsen et al. Walsted, Nilsson et. Walsted, Salomon et al. Walsted 1. 99. 8; Walsted 2. 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